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FORESTS and FORESTRY. 



LETTER 

ADDRESSED TO 

Verplanck Colvin, Esq., 
Superintendent of tie Mironiact Surveys, 

ON THE 

IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS, THEIR MANAGEMENT 

IN GERMANY, WITH A SHORT REVIEW OF 

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

OF FORESTRY, 

BY 

• ■ •— ;- , ,- ■ 

• ■ J ,» • , 

S. V. DORRIEN. 



lew lo\\h ; 

C. C. SHELLEY, PRINTER, 2 & 3 COLLEGE PLACE. 
1879. 






. Dept.Agrl 

7 0'03 



New York, November 4, 1878. 

Dear Sir: 

When I had the pleasure of meeting you in the 
Adirondacks in the Autumn of 1877, our conversation 
turned to the importance of preserving the forests of 
those regions, and I promised then to give you some de- 
tails on the scientific management of forests in Germany. 
I gave this promise presuming that some book might 
have been recently published, which would convey ideas 
on the science of forestry in my native country in such 
a plaiu manner, that a layman even would readily com- 
prehend them. 

Endeavoring to obtain such a book, I found a great 
many excellent works written for professionals exclusively, 
but none adapted for my purpose. 

I was therefore compelled to rely principally on my 
knowledge and experience, gained during many years of 
practical study, which assisted me in making abstracts 
from the above-mentioned works and composing these 
into an essay, which I take great pleasure in transmitting 
to* you. 

The delay in making good my promise, was caused 

by the time-absorbing task of modeling abstracts from 

scientific works into a shape suitable for non-professionals. 

I have divided this essay into three parts, of which 

The First treats on the latest experiments and their 

results respecting the influence of forests on the climate, 

The Second on the scientific treatment of forests, and 

The Third on the historical development of forestry. 



wmm I* 



THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. 

THE First Annual Report of the Commissioners of State 
Parks of the State of New York, submitted to the 
Legislature, ' May 15th, 1873, treats on the influence of 
forests on the climate, especially with regard to the abund- 
ance or lack of water, and reference is therein made to 
the researches of Humboldt, Bonpland, be Saussdre, 
Bousing ault, and others. 

In relation thereto I will quote some portions of a work, 
written by Dr. Ernst Ebermayer, Professor of the Cen- 
tral Forest Academy at Ashaffenburg in Bavaria. 

For five years observations have been made in the 
kingdom of Bavaria, at seven different points, respecting 
the influence of forests on the temperature and moisture 
of the atmosphere, on the evaporation of water, and on 
the quantity of rainfall, &c. 

Most all the facts stated in the above work, are based 
on 5,000 different observations, made during the years 
1868 to 1872, with the help of instruments most ingen- 
iously constructed for that purpose. With these, twice 
every day, at fixed hours and at all seven points, the tem- 
perature of the soil was measured, for comparison in the 
forests as well as in the open fields, at the surface and 
at a depth respectively of one-half, one, two, three, and 
four feet. According to these the mean annual tempera- 



THE INFLUENCE OP FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. 5 

ture of the "forest soil" is, on an average, 21$ lower 
than that in the " open field" and the mean annual tem- 
perature of the " atmosphere in the forest " is on an aver- 
age 10$ lower than that in the " open field." 

They furthermore show the equalizing effect of forests 
in lowering the extreme summer's heat, and in lessening 
the extreme winter's cold. 

The quantity of moisture which the atmosphere may 
contain without a formation of clouds, etc., being depend- 
ent on the temperature, we see how important the above 
experimental observations are with regard to the enquiry, 
whether the abundance or lack of water of a district is 
influenced by forests, and if so, to what extent. 

The higher the temperature, the more moisture the 
atmosphere can absorb and retain without' discharging it 
in the form of dew, fog, rain, or snow. 

As a rule the atmosphere never contains as much 
moisture as it could hold in accordance with the prevail- 
ing temperature. 

The proportion which the moisture actually in exist- 
ence bears, at the same temperature, to that which the 
atmosphere could hold, if fully saturated, is called " rela- 
tive moisture." Observations prove now, that the " atmo- 
sphere of forests" has more relative moisture than "that 
of the open field" notwithstanding the equal degree of 
absolute moisture in both, and consequently a falling of 
the temperature will affect the condensation of moisture 
more, and produce a greater volume of water in the 
former (the forests), than in the latter (the open field). 
These observations give us the relative moisture on an 
average to be 6$ greater " in the forest " than " in the 
open field ; " the difference being 9$ in summer, and 



D THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. 

about 5% in the other seasons. From the above we 
therefore arrive at the conclusion, that forests make a 
climate more humid, their influence being mostly felt 
during the summer season and greater in more elevated 
locations. 

In the higher mountain regions the difference between 
the relative moisture " of the forest " and " the open 
field " is considerably greater than in less elevated 
localities. 

Not less important is the influence of the forest and 
its surface soil on the water supply of a district, retain- 
ing as it does the humidity of the soil. 

Examinations made in relation hereto, have proved 
that if in the open field one hundred parts of water evap- 
orate, in a forest the uncovered soil exhales but 38 parts, 
and the covered soil (with leaves, moss, or humus, i. e., 
vegetable earth), but 15 parts of water. 

No wonder then, as Professor Ebermayer justly remarks 
on this occasion, that the volume of water in rivers is 
greatly diminished, that springs and brooks dry up, or 
flow but periodically, in districts where large tracts of 
woodland have been cleared. 

In a forest the foliage resists successfully the violence 
of even the fiercest storms, and breaks the force of* the 
heaviest rainfall, which gradually reaching the soil, pene- 
trates it but slowly, as the surface covering of leaves, 
moss and humus, acting like a sponge, absorbs and retains 
it. On the other hand, in an open country, much less 
water penetrates the soil, as the rain coming down with 
unbroken force, rushes from hills and mountain sides 
through valleys and fields, only feeding brooks and rivers, 
carrying off in its course quantities of fertile soil and 



THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE CLIMATE. ( 

cutting deep ravines, which in time enlarge and become 
the beds of torrents. 

The above will prove to what an extent woods affect 
the humidity of a climate, and I have tried in particular 
to point out their importance in connection with the 
abundant water supply of a district. Some additional 
quotations from the same work of Professor Ebermayer, 
will also show the highly important bearing, the moisture 
of the atmosphere has on the climate in other respects. 

The principal distributor of warmth over the whole 
globe is the moisture of the atmosphere, without which it 
would be excessively hot in some countries and freezing 
in others. Should the atmosphere be perfectly dry, the 
earth would exhale in the course of the night all the 
warmth it had been receiving during the day, and even 
in summer nights the temperature would then sink to 
the freezing point. 

A striking illustration of the foregoing we find in the 
great desert " Sahara/' where the dryness of the atmo- 
sphere causes a falling off in the temperature after sunset 
to such a degree as even to permit the formation of ice 
in some parts. 

Again, this moisture is the principal cause that the 
atmosphere can retain part of the warmth emanating 
from the sun. Remove the moisture from the atmosphere 
of England but for a single night, remarks Professor 
Tyndall on a similar occasion, and it will inevitably de- 
stroy all the plants which frost would kill. 

Having thus shown the importance of preserving the 
forests on account of their beneficial influence on the cli- 
mate, I shall now try to show how they, belonging either 
to a State or a great land-owner, may be preserved and 
eventually made profitable. 



@m$pwm® II, 

THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 

IT is the task of forest economy to use to the utmost 
advantage the land intended for the cultivation of 
i 
woods, under full observation of all secondary considera- 
tions. Where there are no secondary considerations, the 
most profitable usage is identical with the highest possi- 
ble returns to be netted from the capital invested. 

The secondary considerations which may exist are : 

1st. Where forests serve as protection to open districts 
or for similar purposes. 

2d. Where they are to supply in certain sections the 
demand for different specialties of timber. 

3d. Where they are only intended by their owner to 
beautify the natural scenery, and are solely used as plea- 
sure grounds and deer parks. 

If a forest contains the different kinds of trees best 
suited for climate and soil, standing so closely as to 
leave no waste space, being of various ages, in such 
quantities as to permit every year or after certain pe- 
riods of years the felling of an equal quantity of timber, 
then we have before us a picture of a " stcuidard forest." 

If we consider secondary motives as not existing, the 
creation of such a forest would be the highest perfection 
forestry may attain. 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 



Explanations. 

Climate and soil must be well considered for the 
prosperous thriving of the different kinds of tim- 
ber, as each species has its own peculiar demand in 
that respect. 

To arrive then at the most profitable result, 
there should be timber suitable to both climate and 
soil. The trees should stand so near to each other 
as to leave no openings at all, not however so 
closely as to interfere with each other's growth. 

In order to get from a forest every year, or at 
regular periods, an equal quantity of timber, there 
should be represented in like quantities different 
stages of growth of each species. 

Take for instance, as illustration of the above, 
a pine-wood extending over 1,000 acres of equally 
good soil, and presume, furthermore, that 100 
years would be the most profitable age, in which 
to cut the trees, then 10 acres would have to be 
cleared every year in order to yield uniform profit. 

Each of these 10 acres should be covered with 
timber of a different stage of growth, from 1 to 
100 years. The whole tract would then be divided 
into 100 sections, of which the one of the oldest 
growth (100 years) would have to be cut in the 
first year, and the youngest (one year's growth), 
at the end of 100 years. 

Although it is almost certain that we shall never see a 
forest in so perfect a state, it is necessary to keep in our 
mind such a picture, in order to judge the existing con- 



10 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 

ditions of a forest from a fixed base, upon which to 
attempt its utmost perfection. 

In the following I shall try to describe as briefly as 
possible the system which, with occasional deviations, is 
applied in the different parts of German} 7 for the purpose 
of forming the plan for the management of State or pri- 
vate forests. The system is termed " Betriebs-Regnlierung 
or " Forsteinrichtung" " contrivance of plans for tJie 
management of forests " — " Forest-Regulation." 

THE FIRST PREPARATORY WORK is, to ascertain by sur- 
vejnng the exact extent of the whole forest and of the 
different districts, which for the purposes of management 
have to be treated as separate parts ; and furthermore, to 
attain the geometrical base for the drawing of the neces- 
sary maps. 

Explanatory Remarks. 

The confines of the property must be surveyed 
with the utmost care, and marked by easily dis- 
cernible signs. The variations of the ground, such 
as hills, ridges, valleys, waters, roads, as well as 
any other important objects or points of observa- 
tion should be included in the plan, and there 
should be measured all areas, distinguished by their 
diversity in the quality of the soil and by their 
variety of the timber as to kind and age of growth. 

All minor items which are not lasting and of 
no value to the future management, need not be 
considered. 

To facilitate the management of large tracts of 
forest lands, and to make supervision easy, it is 
often necessary to divide the forests into " admin- 
istration districts? 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 11 

Where natural boundary lines do not exist, these 

are marked permanently by straight lines being cut 

through the woods. 

Previous to the surveying of the plan, or at the same 

time, a thorough examination into the " interior conditions " 

of the forest should be made with regard to the quality 

of the soil, to the timber and its varieties of kind and 

age, in order to form a base for the subdivisions of the 

forests or their districts. 

All those portions of a forest of some extent, 
which distinguish themselves from their surround- 
ings by either soil, timber, growth, or age, and 
which form a homogenial entirety, are known by 
the technical term " Bestaende" " sets of trees?* 1 

THE SECOND PREPARATORY WORK consists, if not already 
completed in the foregoing, of a thorough examination of 
all those conditions of the forest, which influence the pro- 
duction in its present state or which may be of importance 
for the valuation of its future yields. 

These examinations are termed " forest estimations" and 
comprise the following three branches. 

I. The Capability of the Standing Place of the Trees. 

II. The Conditions of the Different " Bestaende " Sets of Trees. 

III. The Product and Cost of the Forest up to the Present Time. 

Explanation to I. 

The capability of the standing place of the trees 
depends upon the locality, i. e. : on the climate, soil, 
country, whether it be level or undulating and upon 
the exposures toward N. and E. or S. and W. 



12 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 

The preceding furnishes the base for : 

(a) The proper selection of timber, its " kind of 

management " as well as the " time of rotation" 

(b) The calculation of the capacity of producing 

for every " class of management ." 

Note to (a). — To make the proper selection of the 
timber, it is essential to be well acquainted with 
the locality, as has been explained before. 

We distinguish three different "kinds of manage- 
ment." 

1st. " Hoohwald." "Timber forests," " seed forests," 
"forest of tall trees." 

Forests which have reached their maturity 

and progenerate themselves from the seeds 

falling from the trees, or which are restocked 

by planting, are termed " Hochwald" "forest 
of tall trees." 

2d. " Niederwald." " Coppice." 

" Niederwald" "Coppice" is a forest where 
the trees are cut down at such an age that 
reproduction may be obtained by shoots from 
the stumps and roots. 

3rd. " Mittelwald" " Middle-wood" a combination 
of 1st and 2nd. 

"Mittelwald" "Middle-wood" is a combina- 
tion of the above two systems of reproduction 
on the same tract, the fresh growth being ob- 
tained from both seeds and shoots. 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 13 

Besides these three principal " kinds of manage- 
ment" we distinguish several others which, however, 
are only of importance in certain localities and under 
exceptional circumstances. 

Of these I shall only mention here one, namely : 

4th. " Plaenterbetrieb" or " Femelwald" "Felling 
by selection" a method according to which the 
timber will be cut whereever it is found, without 
considering reproduction or any other rule ob- 
served in regular systems. 

It is the most primitive "kind of management" 
and, as will be easily understood, ruins a forest and 
produces only irregular and imperfect " Bestaende" 
"sets of trees." This system has therefore been ex- 
cluded, for considerable time past, from the economy 
of State forests, and is only permitted in localities, 
which do not allow a clearing of large tracts for the 
purpose of reproduction, as, for instance, in moun- 
tains where precaution against natural phenomena 
requires an uninterrupted growth of wood. 

Whereever the '• Plaenter system " is still found in 
a regulated administration of forests, certain rules are 
observed which diminish its disastrous consequences, 
viz. : 

1st. The forest is divided, if possible, into divisions 
in accordance with the different stages of 
growth. 



14 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 

2nd. The wood to be used during the year is cut, 
as far as possible, in one and the same division. 

3rd. The principles as to reproduction observed in 
forestry are, as much as possible, adhered to. 

Not all kinds of trees have the capacity of reproducing 
lost parts by shoots, as for instance Pine trees. A spe- 
cial " kind of management '' can therefore only be deter- 
mined upon after a selection of the species of trees, 
under full consideration of the " capability of the 
standing places." 

" Rotation!' The period which elapses between 
the planting of a " Bestand" " set of trees" and its 
maturity combined with reproduction, is termed 
" Umtrieb" "rotation" The end of this period 
coincides with the age of the timber when cut down, 
and is termed " Hanbarkeit Salter" " Age for felling, 
Felling Age." 

The time for felling trees will come around sooner 
in less favored localities than in those where all 
conditions for the prosperous thriving of trees exist. 

Note to (b). — (The calculation of the capacity of 
producing for every " class of management") It is 
very seldom that we find a large forest in such a 
condition, that the different species and quantities 
of timber, as well as the represented " classes of 
age," allow a uniformity in " rotation " " Umtrieb" 
and management. As a rule, it will be necessary 
to divide the forests into different parts, each of 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 15 

which, independent of each other, will require a 
separate management. Those parts of a forest 
which in reference to management are treated as 
one, form what is termed a " Betriebsclasse " " class 
of management." For the formation of these classes 
an exact knowledge of the locality is absolutely 
necessary. 

Explanation to II. 
(The condition of the different " Bestaende" " sets 
of trees") Investigating into these conditions, we 
have: 

(a) To ascertain the " kind of management " hitherto 

in use. 

(b) To ascertain the species of trees on hand in 

each "Bestand" " set of trees," whether it is 
pure or mixed. 

(c) To examine whether the trees stand crowded or 

scattered, or whether there exist any uncovered 
places. 

(d) To examine the age of the trees in the differ- 

ent sets. 

The term of rotation is to be divided into 4, 5 or 
6 periods. A rotation of 100 years, for in- 
stance, into five periods of 20 years each, 
namely: 1st period, 1-20, etc. However, the 
time of each period is not necessarily to be fixed 
at 20 years, but also at 5, 10, or 30 years, as it 
may suit the purpose. 

(e) To estimate the present stock of timber of the 

different " Bestaende " " sets of trees" 



IB THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FOREST'S. 

(/) To calculate the yearly increment which may 
be expected up to felling time. 

Note to (e) and (/). — The different methods in 
use for determining the stock on hand and the year- 
ly increment of the forest, need not be mentioned 
here, as it would lead us into details rather foreign 
to the purpose of this essay. 

In examining the "interior conditions'''' of the 
forest, the forester must consider at each single 
"Bestand" " set of trees" what would be the best 
" kind of management"' for it, although the final 
decision in reference to the future working plan can 
only be given after finishing all preparatory work. 

Explanation to III. 

(To ascertain the product and cost of the forest 
up to the present time.) 

In forming an opinion as to what we may expect 
from the future, the experience of the past is of 
the greatest importance. The forester mnst there- 
fore inquire most minutely into the manner of the 
former management, produce and revenues of the 
forest. It is furthermore necessary to examine the 
so-termed " general exterior conditions" of the forest, 
especially with regard to the neighboring property, 
inasmuch as it may bear great influence on the 
realization or sale of the forest's products. 

THE THIRD PREPARATORY WORK CONSISTS OF THE 
DRAWING OF THE MAPS, which are to give a right view 

of the general conditions of a forest, as ascertained by 

surveys, calculations, and examinations. 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 17 

Their purpose is to show the entire work of the sur- 
veying, and to calculate thereby the size of the different 
areas. 

They consist of : 

I. The Special Map. 

These maps are drawn at a scale of 1 to 5000, and based 
upon the surveys mentioned above, using the notes taken 
during the examination of the " interior conditions " of the 
forest and contain : 

1. The boundary lines of the entire forest. 

2. The boundary lines of its administration-districts, i.e.: 
districts into which it is divided to facilitate its adminis- 
tration. 

The dimensions of these districts, which are placed 
under the control of a scientifically educated officer, vary 
from 3,000 to 17,000 acres. According to their extent 
they are again sub-divided into several circuits, each of 
which is under the supervision of a practical forester, 
whose duty it is to protect his circuit from any possible 
damage, and to superintend the work that is to be done 
in conformity with the instructions of the administration 
office. These circuits vary in their dimensions from 1,000 
to 4,000 acres. The supervision of a number of adminis- 
tration districts is generally concentrated into one depart- 
ment, at the head of which a scientifically educated 
officer, called the Forest-master, stands. 

3. The boundary line of its divisions. 

To facilitate the management of a forest and all neces- 
sary operations, it is essential, in connection with the 



18 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 

occasional division into districts, to divide it into certain 
parts, which are termed divisions, and are marked by using 
natural boundary lines such as roads and brooks, or by 
cutting straight lines through, which are to be kept clear 
of wood. Where there is danger of fire, such lines should 
be at least 30 feet wide. 

It is usual to make the divisions not larger than about 
200 acres. 

4. The boundary lines of the different " Bestaende " 
" sets of trees" 

5. Unwooded areas, such as roads, meadows, waters, etc. 

6. Notes of the surrounding districts to the extent of 
about 300 feet, including villages, roads, meadows, waters, 
etc. 

7. The name and extent of the different districts, year 
of survey, names of the roads, waters, etc. 

Roman figures are to be used for the designation of the 
divisions, and arabic figures to designate the sub-divisions. 

II. Bestandskarte. 
(Map of the Different " Sets of Trees.") 

The purpose of these maps is to give a right view of the 
present form and condition of the forest, and furthermore 
to show the existing kinds of timber, the " kind of manage- 
ment" as well as the different "classes of age." For 
these a scale of 1 to 20,000 is sufficient. 

In drawing a map of a " Hochzvald" "timber forest'''' 
the different kinds of trees are to be marked by different 
colors. 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 19 

For instance : Oak trees, carmine ; Beech trees, green ; 
Birch, yellow; Spruce, blue-black; and Pine trees, black. 
In forests stocked with mixed timber, the intermingled 
wood is designated by marking small trees of a peculiar 
shape in the space showing the respective color of the pre- 
dominating kind of wood. 

The difference in age is designated by different shades 
of the same color, the darkest shade representing the old- 
est, the lightest shade the youngest class. 

The "time of rotation''' " Umtriebszeit" as already 
mentioned, being divided into several periods of age, we 
can have only as many shades as there are periods in a 
"rotation" " Untriebszeit." 

" Niedenvald" " Coppice" is designated by one color, for 
instance, purple; and " Mittlelwald" "Middle-wood" by 
the same color, distinguished only by adding the form of 
small trees. 

" Plaenterwald " is to be designated by the respective 
colors of its principal growth of trees, and is to be dis- 
tinguished from the other classes by small white triangles 
of different size. 

Parts not covered by wood remain un colored. The 
roads, lakes, brooks etc. should be marked by opaque 
lines of a red or blue color. As on the special maps, 
the names, etc., have to be written in, together with an 
explanation of the respective colors. 

III. Maps Showing the Character of Ground and Soil 
as to their Inclinations and Fertility. 

These maps are intended : 

1st. To show the variations of the ground, such as val- 
leys, ridges, ravines, mountains, and the degree of the 
latter's declivities. 



20 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 

2nd. To show the different classes of the soil's capability 
and the different species of rock composing the mountains. 

3rd. To give the administration and division lines as 
well as roads and waters. A scale of 1 to 20,000 would 
also prove sufficient for these maps. 

THE PREPARATORY WORK may now be considered as 
finished, every basis having been gained for determining 
on a future plan of the forest's administration. 

Examining the various notes that have been made dur- 
ing the investigation of a forest's " interior conditions" 
we proceed with the help of these items to form a sys- 
tematic working plan ; and keeping in mind that it is 
neither our intention to live at present at the cost of 
the future, nor to suiter want when we have in reserve, 
we strive to equalize the yields in stated periods on areas 
of, if possible, equal extent. 

The motives we have been acting upon in determining 
the respective management for each separate " Bestand" 
" set of trees" must be mentioned. Furthermore the gen- 
eral principles, by which the future administration is to be 
guided, have to be defined so clearly that even in cases, 
where the adopted rules have to be deviated from, they 
can still as a whole be adhered to. The notes which 
have to be made respecting the working plan of the fu- 
ture administration, include of course the manner of repro- 
duction, the re-stocking of cleared tracts, as well as the 
necessary drainage and the periodical thinnings of the 
woods " Durchf or stung." 

It will often suit the purpose to make a special supple- 
ment under the title " General Directions for Manage- 
ment," in which the leading motives for the method of 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 21 

administration respecting the founding, culture, and yield- 
ing of the "Bestaeiide"' "sets of trees,-'' are laid down. 

Explanations. — It is a well-known fact that an 
old tree occupies a larger space than a young 
plant ; consequently the same area will be found to 
contain of old trees a smaller number than of a 
younger growth, the trees standing in both periods 
as thickly as possible. 

The wood which in every systematic manage- 
ment is to be removed from a forest during the 
time between its stocking and felling age, is taken 
away by periodically repeated thinnings, termed 
" Durchforstiing" " Interlncation?' 1 

It may be mentioned here that the working plan, being 
destined for a number of years, has to be considered with 
particular care, and laid down in a clear and concise form. 

Having proceeded so far, we have to draw now : 

IIII. The Hauungsplan-Karte "felling plan map." 

They purpose to show the intended future condition of 
the forest, and to serve as a guide for the felling and 
cultivation. By comparing this map with the " Bestands- 
karte " " map of sets of trees" we understand at once 
the object the forest regulator had in view, when deciding 
upon the working plan. 

These maps comprise: 

1st. The boundary lines of the forest's districts and its 
respective divisions. 

2nd. The roads, brooks, lakes, etc. 



22 THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 

3rd. The different working periods which, as already 
mentioned, are indicated by the various shades of the re- 
spective colors. 

The plans for cultivating and felling the different 
" Bestaende " '■'■sets of trees''' are made every year, some- 
times for a number of years, and are based on the work- 
ing plan ; in accordance with those the forest is managed. 

It is the custom in Germany to review these plans 
every ten years for the purpose of comparing the pro- 
ceeds of that period with the working plan, and, in accord- 
ance with the result, to decide whether modifications are 
proper or not. 

For the work incidental to the regulation of a forest, 
it is not only necessary to possess a particular ability for 
taking geometrical measurement, but it is also very 
essential to have a thorough knowledge how to appraise 
and calculate the stock, etc. For that reason only expe- 
rienced and able foresters are endowed with such offices, 
and they, in their turn, are again assisted by one or more 
well-informed juniors, as circumstances may require it. 

It is apparent, however, that these rules can only be 
adhered to in countries, where the science of forestry 
has already attained a high degree of perfection, and 
where a number of well-educated foresters can always 
be found, to carry out the plans of regulation and ad- 
ministration. 

" As will be shown in Chapter III., the present 
advanced state of forestry in Germany has only been 
attained gradually during a long period of practical 
experience and study; and although the people here may 
have the benefit of the experience gained by others else- 
where, it will be at first attended with great difficulties 



THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF FORESTS. 23 

to produce a systematic working plan. However I feel 
confident that whoever takes the first practical step in 
that direction and undertakes to organize a systematic plan 
for the management of our forests here, will ingratiate 
himself into the hearts of his fellow-citizens and connect 
his name forever with the history of this country ; for the 
Americans of the future will then recognize the import- 
ance of a thorough system of forestry just as much as the 
necessity of preserving the forests is felt and acknowl- 
edged by them at present." 

To aid the understanding of the foregoing chapter, I 
have prepared two maps of a certain wood district and a 
summary description of the different " Bestaende " " sets 
of trees " with disposition regarding the future manage- 
ment, both of which you will please find affixed below. 

I believe I may close with this, the chapter on forest 
regulation, trusting that from the foregoing you may be 
able to form an idea of the methods observed in Ger- 
many in the administration of forests. 

In conclusion I shall try to show, as briefly as possible, 
the historical development of German forest economy in 
giving quotations and abstracts from a work by August 
Bernhardt, Royal Prussian Forest-Master and Director 
of a division tor experimental forest matters at Neustadt- 
Eberswalde. 



>PWMB III, 
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 

AS earl} 7 as the 13th century we find certain regulations, 
- laid down by owners of extensive forests in regard 
to the management of their woodlands. They are, how- 
ever, very simple, and relate mostly to the cultivation of 
such parts as had been cleared. Some of them contain 
also records of the rules, established in the course of time, 
with reference to the use and preservation of the common 
" Mark" especially of the " Mark-forestsP 

The term " Mark-forests " is applied to woods whereon 
the owners of farms, which are within the limits of the 
mark, have certain rights of usage, though the right of 
possession remains with the liege lord. 

Beginning with the 15th century, we find forest ordi- 
nances proper, i. e.: laws of forest economy for every 
one given by a person having authority by Right of 
State, or dispositions over his own and other estates, 
made by him who is the bearer of the public power and 
who represents the economical interests of all, as for in- 
stance, the forest laws for the Rhinegau of 1487, and the 
Nassau provincial laws of 1465 and 1472. 

Among the oldest forest ordinances, regulating the 
economy of State and other forests, we find one given by 
the Elector Joachim of Brandenburg in 1547, also one re- 
specting the forests owned by the Count of Mansfield, 
given in 1585 by the Elector August of Saxony by vir- 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 25 

tue of his right of sovereignty. In both cases, the forest 
ordinances emanated from Germany, and were not, as 
many contend, of French origin. The earliest French for- 
est laws date from the 16th century, and are consequent- 
ly of more recent date than the first German ordinances. 

Note ;— Civilization at the time of the Reformation (1550) was yet 
depending upon the mental productions of the Romans. In Roman 
literature, however, we find no works on forestry; very little attention 
has been paid by Roman writers to the science of forest economy, 
while they wrote freely on the nursery of trees. The key to this we 
find in the climatic conditions of Italy. The mildness of its seasons 
did not require a large supply of fuel, the necessary demand being 
easily supplied from gardens and parks, and the Alps and Appenines 
furnished all the necessary timber for building purposes. 

But the cultivation of trees was of far greater importance, as they 
furnished not only shade alike to man and beast, but also those juicy 
and delicious fruits of all kinds, which were the pride and boast of 
Italy. Everything pertaining to the nursery and cultivation of fruit 
and shade trees had even at that remote period attained a high per- 
fection. Varro (11(5-27 B. C.) already discriminates distinctly be- 
tween sowing, planting, ingrafting, and propagation by layers. Cato, 
the experienced statesman, called the Wise, gives very good in- 
structions for the laying out of Arbustus (tree-gardens). His directions 
for the cultivation of Olive trees, Elm trees, Vines, Fig trees, Pines 
and Cypresses, as well as his advice for the treatment of nurseries, 
loosening the soil, etc., may even to-day be called perfectly correct. 
Columella, who lived in the first century of our era, also teaches in 
quite a rational manner the laying out of nursery gardens (arbustus), 
giving full directions as to spading in the fall, sowing, weeding, 
transplanting, and lopping of the young seedlings when three feet 
high. He considers the fall after the equinoctial storms the best 
time for planting. 

Reflecting upon the state of forestry in Germany about 
the year 1700, we may assert that everywhere, excepting 
perhaps the northeastern portion, the science of forest 
economy was caused and promoted by sheer necessity. 

About that time there appeared the first symptoms to 
secure a lasting use of the forest, either by dividing the 
woods into sections of equal extent, or by regulating the 
yearly revenues according to the total stock of the forest, 



26 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 

and to change thereby the " Plaenter system''' hitherto in 
use, to a more regulated productive management. Then 
also efforts were made to replace the consumed timber by 
the cultivation of waste lands. 

Yet, notwithstanding all these efforts, the science of 
forest economy still fell short of the requirements of the 
time, and it is not till more than a century later that 
we meet with well-instructed foresters. 

Game and forest keepers with a more than usual 
knowledge of forest matters became the first real 
foresters. Principally among these we count J. G. von 
Langen, a native of Brunswick, who in the year 1740 
introduced the first systematic working plan in the Harz 
Mountains. About the same time we find in Prussia the 
transition from the irregular " Plaenter system " to sys- 
tematic management of the forests. 

Frederick the Great, of Prussia, soon after his accession 
to the throne (1740), made it a law to divide the forests 
into equal sections and to fell the timber accordingly. 
Forest Academies were established in the years 1783, 
1785 and 1790, at Berlin, Hohenheim, Kiel and Munich, 
and from this time dates the scientific knowledge of 
forest matters. But its full importance was only recog- 
nized at a much later period, when it was deemed advis- 
able to consider the laws of nature and to apply the 
rules of general economy to the administration of forests ; 
when political economy favored commercial industry to 
such a degree as to break the absolute sovereignty over 
forests ; when the fast progress of natural science became 
in a high degree beneficial to technical experience ; aud 
when men like G. L. Hartig and Heinrich Cotta began 
to lay down certain rules for the scientific management of 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 27 

forests ; then indeed the knowledge of forestry was 
entitled to be called a science. 

In Germany, laws which regulate the relation of the 
state to the forest property have sustained, since the 
beginning of the nineteenth century, alterations of the 
highest importance, influenced by new theories rapidly 
gaining ground. 

By representatives of the doctrine on the Freedom of 
Possession (Adam Smith and his followers,) all interference 
on the part of the government with the economical 
administration of property belonging to subjects, was 
looked upon as impracticable and exposed to the stigma 
of clinging to an old-fashioned and absolute government. 

Liberating private property from all restrictions caused 
frequent devastation of entire forests, whereas, according 
to Smith's principles, it ought to have led to the highest 
state of prosperity. 

However, those devastations of forests are not to be 
attributed to Adam Smith's doctrines only, but they 
appeared at that epoch rather like a general disease 
spreading throughout Europe, hastened on by the then 
prevailing ideas and theories respecting the absolute free- 
dom of private property. Even state forests were not 
spared at that period of revolution. Sales took place, 
fortunately in a small degree only, principally in Prussia 
and Bavaria. 

Great financial distress may have been the motive 
power for this, although Baron von Stein, who recom- 
mended the sale of state forests at that time most 
energetically, was a strict follower of Adam Smith's 
principles. 



28 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 

It appears that the first impulse for the sale of state 
forests was given by France, at least it was recommended 
in an essay written at Paris by a Mr. M. Mustel in 1784. 

Fortunately the financial calamity did not last long, 
the selling of the state property was no longer a neces- 
sity, and quieter considerations checked in a great 
measure the innovations begun so hastily and recklessly. 
The extent of forest area was also lessened by the 
redeeming of liens on forests. In order to be relieved of 
privileges the people had on state forests, parts of these 
were transferred to them and almost always converted 
into farming lands, meadows and pasture grounds. 

In Prussia the extent of state forests was diminished 
about 875,000 acres during the period from 1820 to 
1865 ; but from that time to 1873 it was increased about 
75,000 acres. Since 1820 Germany has shown a lively 
interest in the cultivation of forests. Frederick William 
III., King of Prussia, paid great attention to the propa- 
gation of oak and beech trees in Brandenburg. The 
Agricultural Society of Bavaria offered premiums for 
forest cultivation, and on the banks of the Rhine atone- 
ment was made for former sins by re-wooding the Eifel 
Mountains. At that time the sowing and planting of 
trees grew to a high perfection; pine woods, particularly, 
were cultivated in Holstein, and during the past few 
years the government has been purchasing large areas of 
heath-lands in Schleswig and Hanover for conversion 
into forests. 

The great importance of state forests, in a financial 
view, is clearly shown, for instance, by Prussia's budget 
for the year 1803, wherein the net income of the state 
forests amounts to 6,100,000 thalers ($4,500,000). 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 



29 



Although these few quotations from the copious work 
of A. Bernhardt may not be of practical value for the 
object in view, they may still be of some interest to a 
country where the science of forestry is as yet almost 
unknown — a terra incognita. 



The advanced state of the science of forestry in 
Europe, is best illustrated by the fact, that there are at 
present 19 High Schools of Forestry, viz. : 



In G 



ERMANY 



In Austria 



2, 



In Switzerland 1, 
In France 1, 

In Italy 1, 

In Russia 2, 



In Sweden 1, 

In Spain 1, 

In Denmark 1, 



in the following cities : Aschaffenburg- 
Tharandt, Eisenach, Neustadt-Ebers- 
walde, Miinden, Hohenheim, Bruns- 
wick, Karlsruhe and Giessen. The 
four last-named are connected with 
other High Schools, 
one in Mariabruu near Vienna, and 
one in Schemnitz in Hungary, the 
latter being connected with a Mining 
Academy. 

in Zurich, connected with a Polytechnic. 
in Nancy, 
in Volombrosa. 

in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The 
latter is in connection with an Agri- 
cultural School, 
in Stockholm, 
in Escurial, near Madrid, 
in Copenhagen, connected with a Vet- 
erinary and Agricultural School. 



Total 



19 



30 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. 

Besides these 19 High Schools there are, in some 
countries, institutes called " Forester Schools," which 
have similar final attainments in view, but which can 
hardly be classed as belonging to the High Schools. 

In Germany, a Forest School ought to have, in accord- 
ance with the requirements of the present day, at least 
10 Chairs, viz. : 

3 Chairs for Forest Science. 

1 Chair for Jurisprudence. 

1 Chair for Public Economy and Finance. 

1 Chair for Mathematics and Geodesy. 

1 Chair for Mineralogy and Geognosy. 

1 Chair for Forest Botany, and 

1 Chair for Forest Zoology. 

1 Chair for Physics and Chemistry. 
Herewith I close my letter, hoping that it may be of 
some use to those who take an interest in the preserva- 
tion of forests, and that it may assist in promoting the 
science of forestry in this great republic. 

Yery respectfully, 

S. v. Dorrien. 

To 

Verplanck Colvin, Esq., 

Supt. Adirondack Surveys, 

Albany, N. Y. 



'«rsp,£, 



TO THE ANNEXED MAP AND TABLES. 

The wood district "Buchholz " is supposed to have been 
formerly managed in connection with other forests in 
several " classes of management" but shall now be admin- 
istered by itself. 

The soil of the divisions I. II, IV, VII, VIII, IX, X, 
and III sub-division 2, V sub-division 1, and VI sub-divi- 
sion 1, consists of clay, more or less mixed with sand, and 
is well suited for the cultivation of beech trees. 

A large extent of this land being already stocked with 
this kind of trees, and there being a good market for it, it 
was determined to combine these divisions into one "class 
of management " of beech trees. Experience showing 
that it was profitable to fell the beech tree in this locality 
at an age of 120 years, a rotation of 120 years was decided 
upon, it being divided into six periods of 20 years each. 
The remaining sub-divisions having a sandy soil, partially 
mixed with clay in small proportions, and well suited for 
the growth of pine wood, it was concluded to form these 
parts into one "class of management'''' of pine trees, 
deeming it advisable to fix the rotation at 80 years, divided 
into four periods of 20 years each. 

The map of the " sets of trees " shows the condition of 
the forest in 1878. The map of the "felling plan" shows: 
how the forester has to operate in accordance with the 
newly-made working plan. 



32 EXPLANATIONS, &C. 

On the last named map, for instance, the snb-divisions 
I 1, and X 1 and 2, are colored of the darkest shade of 
green, which indicates that in this part of the forest the 
timber has to be felled within the next 20 years and has 
to be managed so, that within this period it is to be re- 
stocked with a fresh growth of beech trees. 

Sub-divisions I 2, and II 2, are marked with the next 
lighter shade of green, by which is indicated that the 
operations have to be carried on therein for the next fol- 
lowing 20 years and so on. Thus the various shades of 
the same color show the successive order in which the re- 
spective divisions and sub-divisions have to be managed. 

The sub-division 5 in division VI shows the darkest 
shade in the pine wood color, which indicates that the 
timber on this area has to be felled within the next 20 
years, counting from 1875, and that at the expiration of 
this period in 1S98 the whole area has to be stocked with 
a fresh growth of pine trees and so on. 

Here it may be appropriate to add, that for a more con- 
cise description of the quality of the soil, the standing 
and growth of the trees, it is often customary to in- 
dicate by numbers the various degrees of perfection. 
No. 1, for instance, representing the highest, and -f, 5, 
6, etc., respectively the lowest class of perfection. 

The foregoing remarks, annexed maps and summary 
are not complete in themselves, but are only intended to 
serve as an illustration to chapter II. 



34 



SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE "SETS OF TREES" 



Division. 


Sub-Division. 


Brief Description of the 
"Sets of Trees." 


Designed for 




Extent 

Tons 

a 260 [] R 


No. 


Extent 

Tons 

a 260 [] E 


I Period 


II Period 


No. 


1-20 
Years. 
Tons. 


21^0 
Years. 
Tons. 


i. 


57.0 


1 
2 


27.0 
30.0 


Beeches, over 100 years. 
Growth: good. 
Standing: close. 
Soil: clayish sand, covered 

with vegetable earth 

(Humus). 

do. 70 to 90 years. 
Growth: good. 
Standing: pretty close. 
Soil : clayish sand, covered 

with a thin layer of 

Humus. 






ii. 


90.7 


1 
2 


75.7 
15.0 


do. 80 to 100 years. 

f very good; often 
Growth J intermixed with 
Standing j oaks from 100 to 

[200 years. 
Soil : a sandy clay, with a 
thick layer of Humus. 

do. 60 to 80 years. 

Growth : tolerably good. 

Standing : rather thin, es- 
pecially at the border 
of the forest. 

Soil : sandy clay, slightly 
covered with Humus. 

Ground sloped towards 
East. 






in. 


84.8 


1 
2 


5.4 

7!) 4 


Pines, 6 years old. 

Soil : sand; pretty well 
stocked ; sloped to- 
wards East. 

Beeches, 40 to 60 years; inter- 
mixed with Spruce, 
single and in groups, 
from 30 to 40 years. 

Growth I rt 

Standing f goocl * 

Soil : sandy clay, except at 
the border of the forest 
where it is pure sand. 






Forw'd 


232.5 




232 5 







35 



AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 



the "class of management " of 




Designed for the " class of 


BEECH Trees. 




management " of PINE Trees. 


Ill Period 


IV Period 


V Period 


VI Period 


Yield to be 

expected 

at the felling 


I Period '■ II Period 'III Period 


IV Period 


Yield to 
be expect- 
ed at the 
felling 


41-60 
Years. 


61-80 
Years. 


81-100 
Years. 


101-120 
Years. 


1-20 | 21-10 
Years. Years. 


41-60 

Years. 


61-80 
Years. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Cubic feet. 
270,000 


Tons. ! Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. Cubic > t 








27.0 
















25.0 


5.0 


35,000 
175,000 
















75.7 




B. 636,300 
0. 52,000 
















15.0 




100,500 


5.4 








13,500 




79 4 






B. 611,800 
S. (10,000 














79.4 


115.7 


32.0 


1, 9-10, 600 


5.4 








13,500 



36 



SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE "SETS OF TREES" 



Division. Sub-Division. 



No. 



Extent 

Tons 

a 260 [] R 



Bro'ght 
IV. 



232.5 

80.8 



No. 



Extent 

Tons 

a260[]R 



232.5 
1 41.4 



V. 06 9 



39 4 



Brief Description of the 
" Sets of Trees." 



37.0 



Forw'd 380.2 



350.3 



Spruce, 5 to 10 years old. 
Standing: close. 
Soil: sandy clay. 

To be felled in the III. 
Period, and to be replant- 
ed with beech trees for the 
cultivation of which the 
locality is very well suited. 



Hard and Soft Wood, 30 to 

40 years old. 
Growth: good. 
Standing: very close. 
Soil: a stiff clay, partly 
sandy. 

There are besides the 
predominating Maple and 
Beech trees, Birches and 
Alder, the latter growing 
on the swampy parts of 
the forest which has to be 
drained by ditches. 

The timber has to be 
felled in the IV. Period 
and the area is to be re- 
stocked with Beech trees. 



Oaks, 50 to 60 years old. 
Growth: middling. 
Standing: rather thin. 

Biiches, Hazel and 
other kinds of soft 
wood as undergrowth. 
Soil: clayish sand. 

To be felled in the II. 
Period and the area to be 
restocked with Beech 
trees. Single oaks which 
may show a prosperous 
growth at the time of fell- 
ing are to be reserved for 
the next rotation. 



Designed for 



I Period II Period 



1-20 
Years. 



21-10 
Years. 
Tons. Tons. 



37.0 



37.0 



37 



AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 



the "class of management " of 
BEECH Trees. 



Ill Period IV Period ! V Period 



41-60 | 61-80 
Years. ; Years. 
Tons. Tons. 



81-100 
Years. 
Tons. 



41.4 



79 4 



39.4 



115.7 



41.4 ! 118.8 



VI Period 



101-120 
Years. 
Tons. 



32.0 



Designed for the "class of 
management " of PINE Tree*. 



Yield to be I. 

expected 
at the felling 

time. 
Cubic feet. 



I Period | II Period ! lll Period IV Period J^pe^t- 
ed at the 



115.7 



1,940,600 
S. 124,200 



295,500 



1-20 
Years. 
Tons. 



5.4 



21-40 
Years. 
Tons. 



41-60 
Years. 
Tons. 



259,000 



32.0 II 2,619,300 



61-80 
Years. 
Tons. 



felling 

time. 

Cubic ft. 



13,500 



5.4 



13,500 



38 



SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE " SETS OF TREES " 



Division. 



Sub-Division. 



No. 



Extent 
Tons 

a260D R 



No. 



BroVbt 880.2 



VI. 139.9 



Extent 

Tons 

a 260 [] R 



350.8 
20 9 



Brief Description of the 
" Sets of Trees." 



Spruce, 15 to 20 years old. 

Growth: middling. 

Standing: pretty close. 

Soil: sandy, slightly mixed 
with clay, well suited 
for the cultivation of 
Pine trees. After fell- 
ing to be planted with 
pinewood. Ground 
sloping towards Easl 
and South. 



9.0 Uncovered Place. Hill slop- 
ing towards South. 
Soil is sand, covered with 
grass. To be stocked 
immediately with 
pinewood by seeds. 



4.0 Beech Trees, 40 to (30 years old. 
Growth: thriving. 
Standing: close. 
Soil: line clay. 

Valley extending into 
division VII. to which it 
is to be assigned with ref- 
erence to its " class of 
management. " 



12.0 Birches, 20 to 40 years, mixed 
with Pine trees of 
same age. 

ltT4} pretlygood ' 

Soil: sandy. 

This sub-division is ac- 
cording to its location as- 
signed respectively to the 
I., II., III. and IV. Period 
of the pine " class of man- 
agement.'''' To be restock- 
ed with Pine trees. 



Designed for 



I Period II Period 



1-20 

Years. 
Tons. 



Forw'di 520.1 



396.2 



39 



AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 



the "class of management " of 
BEECH Trees. 



Ill Period 

41-60 
Years. 
Tons. 



41.4 



IV Period 



61-80 
Years. 
Tons. 



118.8 



4.0 



45 4 



V Period i VI Period 



81-100 I 101-120 
Years. | Years. 
Tons. Tons. 



Yield to be 

expected 
at the felling 

time. 
Cubic feet. 



Designed for the " class of 
management " of PINE Trees. 



I Period ! II Period !lll Period IV Period 



1-20 

Years. 
Tons. 



21-40 
Years. 
Tons. 



41-fiO 
Years. 
Tons. 



115.7 33.0 



118.8 , 115.7 



2,619,300 



43,200 



5.4 
20.9 



9.0 



61-80 
Years. 
Tons. 



Yield to 
be expect- 
ed at the 
felling 
lime. 
Cubic ft. 



1.0 



32.0 \\ 2,662,500 



5.0 



3.0 



36.3 | 5.0 I 3.0 



3 



13,500 
52,250 



18,000 



1,800 
9,000 
5,400 
4,800 



30 | 104,750 



40 



SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE " SETS OF TREES " 



Division. 



No. 



Extent 

Tons 

a 2(50 [] E 



Bro'ght 520.1 



VII. 



Forw'd 593.8 



73. 



Sub-Division. 


Brief Description of the 


Designed for 






I Period II Period 






" Sets of Trees." 




No. 


Tons 


1-20 21-40 




a 260 [] R 




Years. 


\ ears. 








Tons. 


Tons. 




396.2 






37.0 


'<> 


52.9 


Pine Trees, mixed with Spruce, 
20 to 40 years. 

Growth: flourishing. 

Standing: close, especially 
at the western border 
of this sub-division. 






4 


56.5 


Pine Trees, 60 to 80 years. 
Growth ) d 
Standing J gooa - 
Soil: sand, with a good 
layer of Humus. 
38.5 tons of this sub-di- 
vision is to be cut off from 
the westerly border and 
assigned to the IV. Period, 
and the remainder to III. 
Period. 






5 


14.5 


Oak Trees, 20 to 40 years old. 
Growth: mostly stunted. 
Soil: clayish sand. 

Some good specimens 
are to be reserved for the 
second rotation, the bulk 
is to be felled in III. Period 
of the ' ' pine class of man- 
agement" and the area is 
to be restocked with pine 
trees. 






1 


73.7 


Beech Trees, 40 to 60 years old. 
Growth: prosperous. 
Standing: close. 
Soil: sandy clay, with a 

good layer of Humus. 

In the lower portions 

very moist; drainage 

necessary. 








593.8 




37 



41 



AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 



the " class of management 
BEECH Trees. 



Designed for the "class of 
management " of PINE Trees. 



Ill Period IV Period I V Period 



41-60 61-80 i 81-100 
Years. Years. ! Years. 
Tons. Tons. Tons. 



45.4 118.8 



73.7 



119.1 



115 



VI Period 



101-120 
Years. 
Tons. 



Yield to be 

expected 

at the felling 

time. 

Cubic feet. 



32.0 



I Period II Period 



2,062,500 



1-20 21-10 
Years. Years. 
Tons. Tom 



36.3 
6.7 



118.8 



115.7 | 32.0 



?95,960 



3,458,460 43.0 



5.0 

38.5 



III Period IV Poriod 



41-60 61-80 
Years. Years. 
Tons. Tons. 



3.0 3.0 



18.0 



38.5 



14.5 



43.5 



Yield to 
be expect- 
ed at the 
felling 
time. 
Cubic ft. 



104,750 
20,100 
96,250 
15,400 



44,000 
115,500 



29,000 



43.2 | 41.5 | 425,000 



42 



SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE "SETS OF TREES" 



Division. 


jub-Uivision. 


Designed for 








Extent 


Brief Description of the . _ . , 

I Period 


II Period 




.Extent 




Sets of Trees. M 




No. 


Tons 


No. 


Tons 


1-20 


21-40 




a 260 [] U 




a 260 [] R 




i ears. 
Tons. 


Years. 
Tons. 


Bro'elit 


593.8 




593.8 






37.0 


VIII. 


78.4 


1 


8.0 


Oak Trees, 60 to 80 years. 
Growth: flourishing. 


8.0 










Standing: pretty close. 










Soil: clay. 












Assigned to the II. Pe- 












riod of the " class of man- 














agement" for Beech trees; 














but, according to circum- 












stances at the end of the 












II. Period, either to dp 














thinned and reserved as an 














oak " set of trees " or to be 














replanted with beech trees 














keeping only the best 














specimens of oaks. 










2 


36.0 


Beech Trees, 20 to 40 years. 

Soil: sandy clay. 

At the easterly part of 
this sub-division mixed 




36.0 










with spruce, which, when 












impeding the growth of 














the beeches have to be 














felled at the thinnings. 










3 


34.4 


Oaks, 40 to 60 years. 




34.4 










SSfcfwi*™". 










Soil: a sandy clay, well 










suited for the growth 










of beech trees. Un- 










dergrowth of birches 










and hazel. 










To be felled in the II. 












Period of the Beech " class 












of management." Oaks 












which show a prosperous 










thriving are to be reserved. 












The area is to be replautetl 












with Beeches. 




Forw'd 


672.2 i 




672.2 | 




115.4 



43 



AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 



the "class of management " of 
BEECH Trees. 



in Period IV Period V Period VI Period 



Designed for the ** class of 
management" of PINE Trees. 



41-60 61-80 

Years. Years. 
Tons. Tons. 



81-100 i 101-120 
Years, j Years. 
Tons. Tons. 



Yield to lie 
expected 



I Period II Period III Period IV Period b ™ pJc" 
1-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 ed at the 



at the felling years. Years. Years. Years. 

time. m „, m 

Cubic feet. Tons. Tons. Tons 



felling 
time. 
Tons, cubic ft. 



119 1 



118.8 115.7 32.0 



3,458,460 
48,000 



43 43.5 432 41.5 425,000 



360,000 



292,400 



119.1 | 118 8 115.7 | 32.0 4,158,860 



43.0 | 43.5 | 43.2 41.5 425,000 



44 



SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE "SETS OF TREES" 



Division. 


Sub-Division 


Designed for 










Brief Description of the ' 

I Period 


II Period 




Extent 




Extent 


" Sets of Trees." 












No. 


Tons 


No. 


Tons 




1-20 


21-40 




a 260 [] R 




a 260 [] R 




Years. 
Tons. 


Years. 
Tons. 


Bro'ght 


6722 




672.2 




115.4 


IX. 


115.5 


1 


18.0 


Beech Trees, 1 to 20 years old. 18.0 












83ft, f«"* 














Soil: strong clay, often 














mixed with sand. 










2 


97.5 


Oaks, 40 to 60 years old. 

Growth ) same as in VIII. 
Standing [• 3, with excep- 
Soil ) tion of the west- 
ern part near the bor- 
der where the standing 
is not as good. 


97.5 




X. 


96 6 


1 


87.2 


Oak and Beech, shoots from 
stumps, 20 to 25 years 
old; thickly mixed 
with oak and beech 
trees from 80 to 180 
years old. 
Soil: a strong clay. 
To be felled in the VI. 












Period, and to be restocked 










by planting beeches, as far 










as there is no natural fresh 










growth of this class ot 










timber or of oaks. Any 










oaks showing a prosperous 












thriving are to be reserved. 










2 9.4 


Pine Trees, 70 to 80 years old, 












mixed with single oaks 














and beech trees at the 












border of sub-division 
1. 

Growth ( d 
Standing I gooa - 






















Soil: a sandy clay. 












This sub-division forms 












a hill sloping gradually 










into sub division 1, and is 










assigned to the Beech 










' ' class of management "VI. 










Period. It is therefore to 












be replanted with beech 








884.3 




trees after the clearing. 






Total, 




884.3 


ll5\5~ 


115 4 



45 



AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT. 



the "class of management " of 
BEECH Trees. 



in Period 



41-60 
Years. 
Tons. 



119.1 



IV Period 



61-80 
Years. 
Tons. 



118.8 



V Period VI Period 



81-100 101-120 
Years. Years. 
Tons. Tons. 



115.7 32 



87.2 



119.1 118.8 



9.4 



115.7 



128.6 



Yield to be 

expected 
at the felling 

time. 
Cubic feet. 

4,158,860 
180,000 



780,000 



B. 280, 000 
0.800,200 



37,600 



5,736,660 



Designed for the "class of 
management ' ' of PINE Trees. 



I Period II Pericd III Period IV Period 



1-20 

Years. 
Tons. 

: 
43.0 



21-40 
Years. 
Tons. 



41-60 
Years. 
Tons 



61-80 
Years. 
Tons. 



Yield to 
be expect- 
ed at the 

felling 

time. 
Cubic ft. 



43.0 



43.5 



43.2 



41.5 



425,000 



43.5 43.2 | 41.5 425,000 



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Wbod-district"BUGHHOLZ 

Total . hen 908 ; tons fa 260 D rods) 



MAP 

of sets ol* trees. 

(Bestands Kark > 
1878. 



AVood district "WVIIIIOI//'* 




map 
of felling plan 

(Hauungsplan luii lc.) 



Division's are marked by red rvman, 
Siih divisions bij black awbian figures 

Signs tordiffemU fund of trees appearing single 
or in groups in compl&e&s ol other wood. 

Qucrcus Fagus siftvntica 



t '' i i 

■ 



■> ■> 



. Ibies and 



'I'm ii s 



t * t 
I f 

* t ' 



Soft won, I 



C \ Dorrien 



llXSli^ESS 



002 8]8 f g*l f 



